The Crisis: The Perception of Race in WWI
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====Map Key==== | ====Map Key==== | ||
| − | The warm colors represent battles from the months leading up to, as well as the month of publication, for each close reading. | + | '''The warm colors represent battles from the months leading up to, as well as the month of publication, for each close reading. As seen in the 3 images below, each month's battles are represented by different shades of yellow, orange or red. Additionally, the number of battles occurring in that month are identified in parentheses. |
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| + | August 1914: Bright Yellow (6) | ||
| + | September 1914: Neutral Yellow (2) | ||
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| + | July 1916: Mustard Yellow (5) | ||
| + | August 1916: Orange (2) | ||
| + | September 1916: Burnt Orange (3) | ||
| − | The cool colors represent the locations of publication or locations referenced within each close reading. | + | <html> |
| + | <img style="border:5px solid black" src="https://i0.wp.com/introdh.files.wordpress.com/2017/04/july-aug-sept-1916.png?w=412&h=&crop&ssl=1&zoom=2" width="200" > | ||
| + | </html> | ||
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| + | April 1918: Pink/Light Red (2) | ||
| + | May 1918: Dark Red (2) | ||
| + | June 1918: Maroon (4) | ||
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| + | <html> | ||
| + | <img style="border:5px solid black" src="https://i1.wp.com/introdh.files.wordpress.com/2017/04/april-may-june-1918.png?w=1400&h=&crop&ssl=1" width="200" > | ||
| + | </html> | ||
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| + | '''The cool colors represent the locations of publication or locations referenced within each close reading. Each edition is given its own shade of blue. | ||
| + | ''' | ||
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| + | Vol. 8 No. 5., 1914: Teal Blue | ||
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| + | <img style="border:5px solid black" src="https://i0.wp.com/introdh.files.wordpress.com/2017/04/crisis-1914.png?w=2000&h=&crop&ssl=1" width="200" > | ||
| + | </html> | ||
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| + | Vol. 12. No. 5., 1916: Bright Blue | ||
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| + | <img style="border:5px solid black" src="https://i1.wp.com/introdh.files.wordpress.com/2017/04/crisis-1916.png?w=740&h=&crop&ssl=1" width="200" > | ||
| + | </html> | ||
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| + | Vol. 16. No. 2, 1918: Navy Blue | ||
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| + | <img style="border:5px solid black" src="https://i1.wp.com/introdh.files.wordpress.com/2017/04/battles-june-1918-the-crisis.png?w=563&h=&crop&ssl=1&zoom=2" width="200" > | ||
| + | </html> | ||
=== Text Mining === | === Text Mining === | ||
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'''A visualization of the word Success used in Vol. 12 No. 5''' | '''A visualization of the word Success used in Vol. 12 No. 5''' | ||
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| + | This visualization shows the usage of the word ''Success'' along with many variations of the word. This shows that although the word ''success'' may not be what is written on every occasion there is a theme of success in a lot of the articles in ''The Crisis''. | ||
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'''A visual example of the occurrence of the words ''Success, Sacrifice,'' and ''Courage'' in Vol. 12 No. 5, 1916''' | '''A visual example of the occurrence of the words ''Success, Sacrifice,'' and ''Courage'' in Vol. 12 No. 5, 1916''' | ||
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| + | This visualization shows the use of the words ''Success'', ''Sacrifice'', and ''Courage''. These words illustrate the brave acts of African-American soldiers during the middle of World War I. The visualization of these words doesn't show an amount accurate to the amount of brave acts that they describe. | ||
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'''A visualization of the occurrences of the words ''Courage'' and ''Sacrifice'' in Vol. 12 No. 5, 1916''' | '''A visualization of the occurrences of the words ''Courage'' and ''Sacrifice'' in Vol. 12 No. 5, 1916''' | ||
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| + | This visualization shows the occurrences of the words ''Courage'' and ''Sacrifice'' along with a variation of courage. The graph doesn't show that the words are used very many times, but their message is still clear. The acts of African-American soldiers during World War I took a lot of ''courage'' and ''sacrifice''. | ||
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Voyant tools was used to discover what words were mostly linked with our ''key points'' throughout the different volume of '''''The Crisis'''''. | Voyant tools was used to discover what words were mostly linked with our ''key points'' throughout the different volume of '''''The Crisis'''''. | ||
| − | ==== | + | ==== Vol. 8 No. 5 ==== |
'''Courage''' | '''Courage''' | ||
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</html> | </html> | ||
| − | + | ==== Vol. 12 No. 5 ==== | |
| − | ==== | + | |
''' Pride ''' | ''' Pride ''' | ||
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<iframe style='width: 50%; height: 400px' src='//voyant-tools.org/?query=sacrifice&context=20&limit=915&corpus=60a0c55f5b5b9e62ff532aa63a1487b2&view=WordTree'></iframe></html> | <iframe style='width: 50%; height: 400px' src='//voyant-tools.org/?query=sacrifice&context=20&limit=915&corpus=60a0c55f5b5b9e62ff532aa63a1487b2&view=WordTree'></iframe></html> | ||
| − | ==== | + | ==== Vol. 16 No. 2==== |
'''Success and its variations''' | '''Success and its variations''' | ||
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=== Close Reading === | === Close Reading === | ||
| − | ==== September 1914: Social Uplift ==== | + | ==== September 1914: Social Uplift (Vol. 8 No. 5) ==== |
Within the section of [http://dl.lib.brown.edu/jpegs/1302701497890631.jpg ''Social Uplift''] found in The Crisis, there are many different accounts of successful African-American people and how they have affected the community. One instance tells about an African-American porter sacrificing his life while defending passengers from bandits on the Illinois Central Railroad. Another instance occurred in Okmulgee, Oklahoma when the African-American population was close to fifty percent of the whole population. This account shows the ways in which the African-American community helped make the overall community of Okmulgee successful in a way that’s different from other cities. | Within the section of [http://dl.lib.brown.edu/jpegs/1302701497890631.jpg ''Social Uplift''] found in The Crisis, there are many different accounts of successful African-American people and how they have affected the community. One instance tells about an African-American porter sacrificing his life while defending passengers from bandits on the Illinois Central Railroad. Another instance occurred in Okmulgee, Oklahoma when the African-American population was close to fifty percent of the whole population. This account shows the ways in which the African-American community helped make the overall community of Okmulgee successful in a way that’s different from other cities. | ||
| − | ==== September 1914: Men of the Month: A Student of Music ==== | + | ==== September 1914: Men of the Month: A Student of Music (Vol. 8 No. 5)==== |
This section of the magazine seems to be just one of the many standpoints for African-American people to share their many accomplishments in the world of white supremacy. This month’s article of [http://dl.lib.brown.edu/jpegs/130270155331256.jpg ''Men of the Month''] focuses on a Student of Music. This student was from the Cosmopolitan School of Music and Dramatic Art, which was at the time located in Chicago. Mrs. Elnora S. Manson was recognized for doing musical research from a racial standpoint, standing out as an African-American student. Manson’s literary abilities ranked as one of the highest among her peers. Her work was the most memorable to the director of the Ensemble Department, Mr. Henry Eames. Mrs. Manson’s account is just one of many successful African-American people, however, it made major impacts in a world which was primarily white. | This section of the magazine seems to be just one of the many standpoints for African-American people to share their many accomplishments in the world of white supremacy. This month’s article of [http://dl.lib.brown.edu/jpegs/130270155331256.jpg ''Men of the Month''] focuses on a Student of Music. This student was from the Cosmopolitan School of Music and Dramatic Art, which was at the time located in Chicago. Mrs. Elnora S. Manson was recognized for doing musical research from a racial standpoint, standing out as an African-American student. Manson’s literary abilities ranked as one of the highest among her peers. Her work was the most memorable to the director of the Ensemble Department, Mr. Henry Eames. Mrs. Manson’s account is just one of many successful African-American people, however, it made major impacts in a world which was primarily white. | ||
| − | ==== September 1914: Editorial: Fighting. ==== | + | ==== September 1914: Editorial: Fighting. (Vol. 8 No. 5) ==== |
In the ''Editorial'', under the section [http://dl.lib.brown.edu/jpegs/130270168278132.jpg ''Fighting,''] we see an address made by [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Winston_Churchill Winston Churchill] on the topic of fighting and whether or not it was considered "righteous" to take up arms and fight. This article does not specifically deal with any of the words being focused on, but rather encompasses a larger struggle going on among soldiers in general, whether African-American or white. The heart of this struggle is summed up well in the questions asked by Mr. Churchill, "Is it [righteousness] acquired by one's sitting still and absorbing it? Is it to be achieved by practicing a long list of "thou shall nots?" | In the ''Editorial'', under the section [http://dl.lib.brown.edu/jpegs/130270168278132.jpg ''Fighting,''] we see an address made by [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Winston_Churchill Winston Churchill] on the topic of fighting and whether or not it was considered "righteous" to take up arms and fight. This article does not specifically deal with any of the words being focused on, but rather encompasses a larger struggle going on among soldiers in general, whether African-American or white. The heart of this struggle is summed up well in the questions asked by Mr. Churchill, "Is it [righteousness] acquired by one's sitting still and absorbing it? Is it to be achieved by practicing a long list of "thou shall nots?" | ||
Likewise, Mr Churchill answers his own question: "Righteousness is growth. The moment fighting stops, growth stops, and righteousness has ceased to radiate because it is dead." This embodies, what is easily perceived as, the conviction that many African-American soldiers felt during WWI. This conviction pushed them on to ''bravery,'' ''success'' and gave them ''pride'' in the purpose they were fulfilling by doing their duty and serving the United States of America. | Likewise, Mr Churchill answers his own question: "Righteousness is growth. The moment fighting stops, growth stops, and righteousness has ceased to radiate because it is dead." This embodies, what is easily perceived as, the conviction that many African-American soldiers felt during WWI. This conviction pushed them on to ''bravery,'' ''success'' and gave them ''pride'' in the purpose they were fulfilling by doing their duty and serving the United States of America. | ||
| − | ==== September 1916: The Horizon: Ghetto ==== | + | ==== September 1916: The Horizon: Ghetto (Vol. 12 No. 5)==== |
Typically "ghetto" refers to a place in a city or town, usually run down and dangerous. However, in [http://dl.lib.brown.edu/jpegs/1292362409523500.jpg ''The Horizon: Ghetto''], | Typically "ghetto" refers to a place in a city or town, usually run down and dangerous. However, in [http://dl.lib.brown.edu/jpegs/1292362409523500.jpg ''The Horizon: Ghetto''], | ||
"ghetto" takes on a different connotation. It refers to a place or person put in or restrict to an isolated or segregated area or group. This article of the magazine is designated to showing readers how segregated and differently the dominant races were treated and viewed, compared to African-Americans. One instance tells of a white woman and an African-American man, allowed to get married by permission of the parents, however, once married, the state of Missouri refused to issue them a marriage license. Another instance, a positive encounter, tells readers how the "Negro policeman" were "restored to duty in Philadelphia, Pa." This was obviously a positive promotion and step forward for African-Americans during this time. This was an instance where African-Americans were given a chance to redeem their dignity and prove they were just as committed and able to carry out the same duties as those already in positions of authority and influence. This is a reoccurring theme throughout The Crisis and shows how vigilant and dedicated African-Americans had to be, both on the battle field and at home. | "ghetto" takes on a different connotation. It refers to a place or person put in or restrict to an isolated or segregated area or group. This article of the magazine is designated to showing readers how segregated and differently the dominant races were treated and viewed, compared to African-Americans. One instance tells of a white woman and an African-American man, allowed to get married by permission of the parents, however, once married, the state of Missouri refused to issue them a marriage license. Another instance, a positive encounter, tells readers how the "Negro policeman" were "restored to duty in Philadelphia, Pa." This was obviously a positive promotion and step forward for African-Americans during this time. This was an instance where African-Americans were given a chance to redeem their dignity and prove they were just as committed and able to carry out the same duties as those already in positions of authority and influence. This is a reoccurring theme throughout The Crisis and shows how vigilant and dedicated African-Americans had to be, both on the battle field and at home. | ||
| − | ==== September 1916: Literature ==== | + | ==== September 1916: Literature(Vol. 12 No. 5) ==== |
[http://dl.lib.brown.edu/jpegs/1292362254211000.jpg ''Literature,''] a subheading under ''The Looking Glass'' shines a light on literary successes made by African-American men and women. The first focuses is on Dr. C.V. Roman and his new book, ''American Civilization and the Negro. '' A newspaper describes his book as "a strong defense of the Negro of the South, and [Roman] finds every ground for encouragement in the progress which the race is making." The second literary success described by the article focuses on [http://www.bu.edu/missiology/missionary-biography/l-m/mackenzie-jean-kenyon-1874-1936/ Jean Kenyon Mackenzie's] book ''Black Sheep.'' Although these books may not focus on the ''bravery'' and ''courage'' shown during a time of war, they show a ''pride'' in the successes of the African-American people. | [http://dl.lib.brown.edu/jpegs/1292362254211000.jpg ''Literature,''] a subheading under ''The Looking Glass'' shines a light on literary successes made by African-American men and women. The first focuses is on Dr. C.V. Roman and his new book, ''American Civilization and the Negro. '' A newspaper describes his book as "a strong defense of the Negro of the South, and [Roman] finds every ground for encouragement in the progress which the race is making." The second literary success described by the article focuses on [http://www.bu.edu/missiology/missionary-biography/l-m/mackenzie-jean-kenyon-1874-1936/ Jean Kenyon Mackenzie's] book ''Black Sheep.'' Although these books may not focus on the ''bravery'' and ''courage'' shown during a time of war, they show a ''pride'' in the successes of the African-American people. | ||
| − | ==== September 1916: A Discrepancy ==== | + | ==== September 1916: A Discrepancy (Vol. 12 No. 5)==== |
Discrepancy was written in 1916, right in the middle of WWI. It’s interesting how all these major people who were involved in WWI had such good things to say about the African-American soldiers. Within [http://dl.lib.brown.edu/jpegs/1292362297289125.jpg ''A Discrepancy''] there are multiple accounts of articles written about African-American soldiers, and specifically the accommodations they had to deal with. The Syracuse, N. Y., Post-Standard, goes on to say how the African-American infantry cannot speak too highly of their ''courage'', their obedience to follow orders and their "general spirit of loyalty.” This excerpt goes on to say how “There are no ''braver'' troops in the United States Army. They have never failed.” The Paterson, N. J., Press-Guardian speaks of certain troops that were within the 10th Regiment telling how "If they are not in history the ''bravest'' of the ''brave'', they are as ''brave'' as the ''bravest''!” The New York World goes on to post: "To devotion to his officers, he adds ''pride'' in the service, ready excellence in the drill and a perfect willingness to follow where he is led.” These citations are perfect examples of the pride of success, bravery and sacrifice made by African-American soldiers, acknowledged by those willing to give credit where credit is due. | Discrepancy was written in 1916, right in the middle of WWI. It’s interesting how all these major people who were involved in WWI had such good things to say about the African-American soldiers. Within [http://dl.lib.brown.edu/jpegs/1292362297289125.jpg ''A Discrepancy''] there are multiple accounts of articles written about African-American soldiers, and specifically the accommodations they had to deal with. The Syracuse, N. Y., Post-Standard, goes on to say how the African-American infantry cannot speak too highly of their ''courage'', their obedience to follow orders and their "general spirit of loyalty.” This excerpt goes on to say how “There are no ''braver'' troops in the United States Army. They have never failed.” The Paterson, N. J., Press-Guardian speaks of certain troops that were within the 10th Regiment telling how "If they are not in history the ''bravest'' of the ''brave'', they are as ''brave'' as the ''bravest''!” The New York World goes on to post: "To devotion to his officers, he adds ''pride'' in the service, ready excellence in the drill and a perfect willingness to follow where he is led.” These citations are perfect examples of the pride of success, bravery and sacrifice made by African-American soldiers, acknowledged by those willing to give credit where credit is due. | ||
| − | ==== June 1918: A Comrade to Comrades ==== | + | ==== June 1918: A Comrade to Comrades (Vol. 16 No. 2)==== |
This article, [http://dl.lib.brown.edu/jpegs/1292948033108625.jpg ''A Comrade to Comrades,''] was written by Retired Colonel [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Young_(United_States_Army) Charles Young] and addressed the driving force for African-American soldiers. | This article, [http://dl.lib.brown.edu/jpegs/1292948033108625.jpg ''A Comrade to Comrades,''] was written by Retired Colonel [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Young_(United_States_Army) Charles Young] and addressed the driving force for African-American soldiers. | ||
It states they are ultimately fighting for their "aspirations for racial betterment." Colonel Young addressed the African-American soldiers in this way: "Do not follow, but set the pace for others in doing duty, in discipline, in loyalty and leadership." This shows his spirit for the African-American soldiers to succeed and could even be seen as if he is giving them a half-time pep talk to finish the war. The war ends 5 months after this edition was published. | It states they are ultimately fighting for their "aspirations for racial betterment." Colonel Young addressed the African-American soldiers in this way: "Do not follow, but set the pace for others in doing duty, in discipline, in loyalty and leadership." This shows his spirit for the African-American soldiers to succeed and could even be seen as if he is giving them a half-time pep talk to finish the war. The war ends 5 months after this edition was published. | ||
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Colonel Charles Young was the third African-American graduate of West Point, the first African-American man to achieve the rank of colonel, and the highest-ranking African-American officer in the Regular Army up until his death in 1922. This shows just a small amount of the ''success'' Colonel Young and other African-American soldiers achieved during this time. | Colonel Charles Young was the third African-American graduate of West Point, the first African-American man to achieve the rank of colonel, and the highest-ranking African-American officer in the Regular Army up until his death in 1922. This shows just a small amount of the ''success'' Colonel Young and other African-American soldiers achieved during this time. | ||
| − | ==== June 1918: Editorial ==== | + | ==== June 1918: Editorial (Vol. 16 No. 2) ==== |
After a close reading of this [http://dl.lib.brown.edu/jpegs/1292948033108625.jpg ''Editorial''], it seems that the Secretary of War, [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newton_D._Baker Newton D. Baker] is commending the African-American soldiers of the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Expeditionary_Forces American Expeditionary Force] and trying to convince those reading the editorial that they are being treated fairly. He points out how impressed he was with the American Expeditionary Force and how the camps were “noticeably excellent” when it came to sanitation. One word that stood out above all the others was the word “pride.” The secretary of War stated that he had “come back with an increased pride in these units.” Using this line to close his address, the Secretary of War showed that he was satisfied with what the African-American soldiers were doing, he believed in them, and he saw that they were being treated as they should be. However, many might argue, that the fact he had to try and prove this point, is in fact, contradictory to the belief that there was no discrimination between soldiers. | After a close reading of this [http://dl.lib.brown.edu/jpegs/1292948033108625.jpg ''Editorial''], it seems that the Secretary of War, [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newton_D._Baker Newton D. Baker] is commending the African-American soldiers of the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Expeditionary_Forces American Expeditionary Force] and trying to convince those reading the editorial that they are being treated fairly. He points out how impressed he was with the American Expeditionary Force and how the camps were “noticeably excellent” when it came to sanitation. One word that stood out above all the others was the word “pride.” The secretary of War stated that he had “come back with an increased pride in these units.” Using this line to close his address, the Secretary of War showed that he was satisfied with what the African-American soldiers were doing, he believed in them, and he saw that they were being treated as they should be. However, many might argue, that the fact he had to try and prove this point, is in fact, contradictory to the belief that there was no discrimination between soldiers. | ||
| − | ==== June 1918: The Horizon: Foreign ==== | + | ==== June 1918: The Horizon: Foreign (Vol. 16 No. 2)==== |
[http://dl.lib.brown.edu/jpegs/1292948257327375.jpg ''Foreign,''] a subheading under ''The Horizon,'' deals with a number of issues and topics happening on a global scale during WWI. The majority of these topics are descriptions of extreme bravery and sacrifice by African-American soldiers. The words ''courage'', ''bravery'', and ''gallantry'' appear together ten times in just three accounts. The first two accounts specifically describe the actions of Pte. C. Hyndman, in Trinidad, and Pte. F. Puller, in Jamaica, as acts done voluntarily for the betterment of the armies information, accessibility or advantage. | [http://dl.lib.brown.edu/jpegs/1292948257327375.jpg ''Foreign,''] a subheading under ''The Horizon,'' deals with a number of issues and topics happening on a global scale during WWI. The majority of these topics are descriptions of extreme bravery and sacrifice by African-American soldiers. The words ''courage'', ''bravery'', and ''gallantry'' appear together ten times in just three accounts. The first two accounts specifically describe the actions of Pte. C. Hyndman, in Trinidad, and Pte. F. Puller, in Jamaica, as acts done voluntarily for the betterment of the armies information, accessibility or advantage. | ||
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===Conclusion === | ===Conclusion === | ||
| − | + | What was the reality of the conditions that African-American soldiers faced during their service? What were the barriers successful African-American people overcame to accomplish what they did and how were their actions perceived by foreign entities compared to back home? Through the tools used above, and a series of close readings, a pattern emerges. There were, in fact, both brave African-American soldier and brave African-American civilians who risked and sometimes sacrificed their lives for the safety of others. However, their only acknowledgement was within their own community and occasionally by foreign allies or entities. There were successful artists, business owners, and even pillars of communities that were, unfortunately, still only seen by the color of their skin. Their success meant nothing to others, but it meant everything to them. The pride ''The Crisis'' shows African-American people having for their accomplishments, as well as the accomplishments of others, is inspirational. This is what African-Americans enlisted in the army were fighting for. Equality, freedom, justice, and a chance to be seen. The unfortunate truth, however, is that the United States seldom acknowledged these acts of bravery or stories of success. African-American soldiers who were honored for their sacrifice were done so by foreign entities, as mentioned before, being shown much more respect by people abroad than by their neighbors back home. Additionally, successful African-American people were not respected in the community to the same degree as others. Nonetheless, in the end, the extreme pride African-American people had in their success and bravery was unifying and helped create the strong sense of dignity found throughout the editions of ''The Crisis'' studied above. | |
| − | + | In conclusion, one can see that the words ''Pride'' and ''Success'', in addition to the idea of ''Bravery, Gallantry, Courage,'' and ''Sacrifice,'' are used more than people would expect when referring to African-American people in the late 1910s. Most of these words would not come to mind when talking about racial differences in this historical context. However, using the editions of ''The Crisis'' from 1914, 1916 and 1918, readers can see how African-American people overcame the barrier of discrimination and accomplished things most only dreamed of, especially during a hard time, such as World War I. Additionally, even when the words don't appear themselves, the ideas are still ingrained as an identifying theme throughout every story, newspaper and listing. | |
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| + | "List of World War I Battles." Wikipedia. Wikimedia Foundation, n.d. Web. 29 Mar. 2017. | ||
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| + | "Firstworldwar.com." First World War.com - Battles - All by Date. N.p., n.d. Web. 12 Apr. 2017. | ||
"World War I." Wikipedia. Wikimedia Foundation, n.d. Web. 14 Apr. 2017. | "World War I." Wikipedia. Wikimedia Foundation, n.d. Web. 14 Apr. 2017. | ||
